Software process model

•    A simplified representation of a software process, presented from a specific perspective

•    Examples of process perspectives are

*         Workflow perspective - sequence of activities

*         Data-flow perspective - information flow

*         Role/action perspective - who does what

•        Generic process models

*         Waterfall

*             Evolutionary development

*         Formal transformation Integration from reusable components

Software engineering Computer science and System engineering

Computer science is concerned with theory and fundamentals; Software engineering is concerned with the practicalities of developing and delivering useful software Computer science theories are currently insufficient to act as a complete underpinning for software engineering. System engineering is concerned with all aspects of computer-based systems development including hardware, software and process engineering. Software engineering is part of this process System engineers are involved in system specification, architectural design, integration and deployment.

  

TYPE I and TYPE II SUPER CONDUCTORS

        Superconductors are differentiated by there magnetization curves by two types. They are TYPE I and TYPE II Super conductor.

In Pure Material or TYPE I Superconductor, the specimen cannot resist the magnetic field from critical applied field H_C. After H_C magnetic field penetrate the specimen totally. It losses its super conducting properties completely.

In TYPE II superconductor usually alloys or composite, when the applied field crosses H_C1 the specimen starts to loss its super conductivity. But field cannot penetrate fully and super conducting property is retained in the part of the specimen up to H_C2. This region is called vortex state. After H_C2 the specimen is in normal state.

APPLICATIONS:-

1. Flux trapping.
2. Flux shielding.
3. Flux concentration.
4. Magnetic bearings.
5. Electric power transmission.
6. SQUID Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.
7. MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
8. MAGLEV MAGnetic LEVitation.

Meissner Effect

           Transition temperature is the temperature at which the resistance of the material fell sharply to zero or close to zero. Superconductor would have no resistance at all.

When temperature is lowered below T_C, the magnetic lines of force are expelled from the specimen. This is called Meissner effect.

SUPERCONDUCTOR

         At very low temperature most of the metals and alloys allows the current to pass through it freely without resistance. This phenomenon is called Superconductivity.

            It was discovered in 1911 by Kammerlingli Onnes. He was experimenting with mercury sample at low temperature and studies the resistance of mercury. The Resistivity of the mercury was decreasing normally when the temperature was decreases. But at a particular temperature T_C = 4.15 K the resistivity suddenly dropped to zero. This property is called Superconductivity. The superconducting sate the conductional electrons in the metal forms a loosed pair that persistence the electric current.

            Superconducting property occurs in many metals, alloys, metalloids and doped semiconductors. Some material became super conducting only under high pressure. Eg. Silicon T_C = 8.3 K; pressure = 165 kilo bar. Even trace quantities of foreign bodies if magnetic can lower the transition temperature very much. Decay time of the superconductor is not less than 100,000 year.

Aurora

God's spectacular display of light and color, Aurora - also called the northern or southern lights - usually occur in the nighttime in the polar regions. Lights that can be see in the northern hemisphere are called the Aurora Borealis while the southern lights are called the Aurora Australis. Though the aurora can be seen throughout the year, the greatest chances to experience this celestial show is during the months of March, April, September and October.

Shot Wave Diathermy (SWD)

The applications of physics in the treatment using physiotherapy techniques are in numerous in number.  The treatment methodology is so easy and doesn't cause any pain to the patients. All equipment that is used in treatment has an underlying impact of the principle of physics.

The medical use of high frequency electrical currents has been traced back to 1892. In the same year in Paris, DARSONVAL passed a one ampere current at high frequency to himself. The similar amounts of electricity at low frequencies were known to be potentially fatal but high frequency gives a sensation of warmth. Subsequent work on high frequency current led to the development of inductive and capacitive methods to produce non-superficial heating. The method came to be known as “Diathermy” from the Greek meaning“Through Heating”.

A short diathermy current has a frequency of between 10⁷ and 10⁸ Hz and setup radio waves with a wavelength of between 30m and 3m. The use of any current within this range is called as “Short Wave Diathermy”, but that commonly used for medical work has a frequency of 27120000 Hz (27.12 MHz) and setup a radio wave with a wavelength of 11m. This current is generated in a machine circuit, which in turn is coupled to a patient (resonator) circuit, which is used to treat the patient, provide a suitable method of application is chosen. Shot Wave Diathermy provides as deep a form of heat as any available to the physiotherapist. It uses high frequency current for its usage.
Among the different equipment available for the treatment, the SWD device, though, a little bulky, has the blessing of quicker recovery of the patients. The reports of the case study indicate that SWD is the best method of treating the back pain, pain in motor region etc.
In the modern world, the treatment through physiotherapy is gaining importance. If the devices used for treating physiotherapy cases were designed in such a way that they support portability and make use of the many technological revolutions, based on principles of physics, the field of physiotherapy will grow rapidly and the percentage of recovery of the patients would also go high. These devices are useful to treat the problems of common people at low cost. By improving the techniques further, it will be possible to cure many complicated and chronic diseases effectively at low cost.

The Nobel Prize in Physics

1901	Wilhelm C. Röntgen	Germany
1902	Hendrik A. Lorentz Pieter Zeeman	Netherlands Netherlands
1903	Antoine Henri Becquerel Pierre Curie Marie Curie	France France Poland-France
1904	John W. Strutt	Great Britain
1905	Philipp E. A. von Lenard	Germany
1906	Sir Joseph J. Thomson	Great Britain
1907	Albert A. Michelson	United States
1908	Gabriel Lippmann	France
1909	Carl F. Braun Guglielmo Marconi	Germany Italy
1910	Johannes D. van der Waals	Netherlands
1911	Wilhelm Wien	Germany
1912	Nils G. Dalen	Sweden
1913	Heike Kamerlingh Onnes	Netherlands
1914	Max von Laue	Germany
1915	Sir William H. Bragg Sir William L. Bragg	Great Britain Great Britain
1916
1917	Charles G. Barkla	Great Britain
1918	Max K. E. L. Planck	Germany
1919	Johannes Stark	Germany
1920	Charles E. Guillaume	France
1921	Albert Einstein	Germany-United States
1922	Niels Bohr	Denmark
1923	Robert A. Millikan	United States
1924	Karl M. G. Siegbahn	Sweden
1925	James Franck Gustav Hertz	Germany Germany
1926	Jean B. Perrin	France
1927	Arthur H. Compton Charles T. R. Wilson	United States Great Britain
1928	Owen W. Richardson	Great Britain
1929	Prince Louis-Victor de Broglie	France
1930	Sir Chandrasekhara V. Raman	India
1931
1932	Werner Heisenberg	Germany
1933	Paul A. M. Dirac Erwin Schrodinger	Great Britain Austria
1934
1935	Sir James Chadwick	Great Britain
1936	Carl D. Anderson Victor F. Hess	United States Austria
1937	Clinton J. Davisson Sir George P. Thomson	United States Great Britain
1938	Enrico Fermi	Italy-United States
1939	Ernest O. Lawrence	United States
1940
1941
1942
1943	Otto Stern	United States
1944	Isidor Isaac Rabi	United States
1945	Wolfgang Pauli	United States
1946	Percy W. Bridgman	United States
1947	Sir Edward V. Appleton	Great Britain
1948	Patrick M. S. Blackett	Great Britain
1949	Hideki Yukawa	Japan
1950	Cecil F. Powell	Great Britain
1951	Sir John D. Cockroft Ernest T. S. Walton	Great Britain Ireland
1952	Felix Bloch Edward M. Purcell	United States United States
1953	Frits Zernike	Netherlands
1954	Max Born Walter Bothe	Great Britain Germany
1955	Polykarp Kusch Willis E. Lamb	United States United States
1956	John Bardeen Walter H. Brattain William Shockley	United States United States United States
1957	Tsung-dao Lee Chen Ning Yang	United States United States
1958	Pavel Cherenkov Ilya Frank Igor Y. Tamm	Soviet Union Soviet Union Soviet Union
1959	Owen Chamberlain Emilio G. Segrée	United States United States
1960	Donald A. Glaser	United States
1961	Robert Hofstadter Rudolf L. Mössbauer	United States Germany
1962	Lev D. Landau	Soviet Union
1963	Maria Goeppert-Mayer Eugene P. Wigner J. Hans D. Jensen	United States United States Germany
1964	Nikolai G. Basov Aleksander M. Prochorov Charles H. Townes	Soviet Union Soviet Union United States
1965	Richard P. Feynman Julian S. Schwinger Shinichiro Tomonaga	United States United States Japan
1966	Alfred Kastler	France
1967	Hans A. Bethe	United States
1968	Luis W. Alvarez	United States
1969	Murray Gell-Mann	United States
1970	Louis Néel Hannes Alfvén	France Sweden
1971	Dennis Gabor	Great Britain
1972	John Bardeen Leon N. Cooper John R. Schrieffer	United States United States United States
1973	Ivar Giaever Leo Esaki Brian D. Josephson	United States Japan Great Britain
1974	Martin Ryle Antony Hewish	Great Britain Great Britain
1975	James Rainwater Ben Mottelson Aage Bohr	United States United States-Denmark Denmark
1976	Burton Richter Samuel C. C. Ting	United States United States
1977	John H. Van Vleck Philip W. Anderson Nevill F. Mott	United States United States Great Britain
1978	Pyotr Kapitsa Arno Penzias Robert Wilson	Soviet Union United States United States
1979	Steven Weinberg Sheldon L. Glashow Abdus Salam	United States United States Pakistan
1980	James W. Cronin Val L. Fitch	United States United States
1981	Nicolaas Bloembergen Arthur Schaalow Kai M. Siegbahn	United States United States Sweden
1982	Kenneth G. Wilson	United States
1983	Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar William A. Fowler	United States United States
1984	Carlo Rubbia Simon van der Meer	Italy Netherlands
1985	Klaus von Klitzing	Germany
1986	Ernest Ruska Gerd Binnig Heinrich Rohrer	Germany Germany Switzerland
1987	K. Alex Müller J. Georg Bednorz	Switzerland Germany
1988	Leon M. Lederman Melvin Schwartz Jack Steinberger	United States United States United States
1989	Norman F. Ramsey Hans G. Dehmelt Wolfgang Paul	United States Germany-United States Germany
1990	Richard E. Taylor Jerome I. Friedman Henry W. Kendall	Canada United States United States
1991	Pierre-Giles de Gennes	France
1992	Georges Charpak	Poland-France
1993	Joseph H. Taylor Russell A. Hulse	United States United States
1994	Bertram N. Brockhouse Clifford G. Shull	Canada United States
1995	Martin Perl Frederick Reines	United States United States
1996	David M. Lee Douglas D. Osheroff Robert C. Richardson	United States United States United States
1997	Steven Chu William D. Phillips Claude Cohen-Tannoudji	United States United States France
1998	Robert B. Laughlin Horst L. Störmer Daniel C. Tsui	United States United States United States
1999	Gerardus 't Hooft Martinus J.G. Veltman	Netherlands Netherlands
2000	Zhores I. Alferov Herbert Kroemer Jack S. Kilby

THE CULTURAL AND EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS

The Cultural and Educational Rights is one of the six fundamental right that have been granted to us in the Indian Constitution. This right allow every citizen of India to have a cultural and education upto where that person wants. This fundamental right is described in the constitution as:

Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part there of having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.

No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.

All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.

In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of any educational institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State shall ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.

The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language.

IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES

YEAR	DISCOVERY	PHYSICIST
1750	NATURE OF LIGHTNING	FRANKLIN
1798	CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT:MEASUREMENT OF G	CAVENDISH
1800	DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY	DALTON
1820	FRAUNHOFER LINES	FRAUNHOFER
1831	ELECTRIC DYNAMO	FARADAY
1833	WHEATSTONE BRIDGE	WHEATSTONE
1834	ELECTRIC MOTOR	JACOBI
1841	POTENTIOMETER	POGGENDORF
1842	DOPPLER EFFECT	DOPPLER
1845	ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT	JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
1847	KIRCHOFF’S LAWS OF ELECTRICITY	KIRCHOFF
1857	KINETIC THEORY	CLAUSIUS
1861	ANDREW’S EXPERIMENT WITH CO2	ANDREWS
1865	ENTROPY	CLASSIUS
1872	VANDER WAAL’S EQUATION	VANDER WAAL
1879	DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF LIGHT	MICHELSON
1879	CATHODE RAY TUBE	CROOKES
1882	DIFFRACTION GRATTING	ROWLAND
1885	TRANSFORMER	STANLEY
1887	WIRELESS WAVES	HERTZ
1895	X – RAYS	ROENTGEN
1896	RADIOACTIVITY	BECQUEREL
1897	CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE	BROWN
1897	MEASUREMENT OF e/m FOR THE ELECTRON	THOMSON
1898	RADIUM DISCOVERED	CURIES
1900	QUANTUM THEORY	PLANCK
1901	BLACK BODY CURVE	PLANCK
1905	THEORY OF RELATIVITY	EINSTEIN
1911	SUPERCONDUCTIVITY	HEIKE KAMARLINGH ONNES
1912	CLOUD CHAMBER	WILSON
1912	X-RAY DIFFRACTION	LAUE
1913	X-RAY SPECTROMETER	BRAGG
1925	EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE	PAULI
1929	TELEVISION TUBE	ZWORYKIN
1929	ELECTROSTATIC ACCELERATOR	COCKCROFT & WALTON
1930	QUANTUM MECHANICS	DIRAC
1931	NEUTRINO	PAULI
1932	CYCLOTRON	LAWRENCE
1932	NEUTRON	CHADWICK
1938	SUPER FLUIDITY	KAPITZA
1938	NUCLEAR FISSION	HAHN & STRASSMAN
1948	TRANSISTOR	BARDEEN, BRATTAIN & SHOCKLEY
1952	BUBBLE CHAMBER	GLASER
1955	UNIFIED FIELD THEORY	EINSTEIN
1960	RUBY LASER	THEODORE MAIMAN
1985	1000 G eV ACCELERATOR	FERMILAB
1987	4.2 m TELESCOPE	WILLIAM HERSCHEL